PHL-AP98.HTM

This file is copyright (c) 1998 The Philalethes Society and all rights including any redistribution rights are reserved by the copyright holder. Permission to quote from, redistribute or to otherwise use these materials must be obtained from the copyright holder directly by contacting The Philalethes, Nelson King, FPS, Editor, 2 Knockbolt Crescent, Agincourt Ontario Canada, M1S 2P6. Tel: 416-293-8071 Fax: 416-293-8634 or nking@freemasonry.org or nking@onramp.ca

Contents

27 The President's Corner

by Robert S. Davis, FPS

27 Report of the Executive Board Meeting

by Wallace McLeod, FPS

28 From the Editor's Desk

by Nelson King, FF5

29 1998 Feast and Forum Lecture

What Are We Trying To Save?

by Thomas W Jackson, FF5

32 God, Mathematics, and Masonry

by James L Sieber, MRS

36 1998 Blue Frair Lecture

The High Degrees in the

United States: 1730-1830

by S. Brent Morris, FPS, BF

42 Houdini - Master of Illusion- Part Ii

by William F. Parker, MRS

46 Why Attend Lodge?

by George I. H. Mason, MRS

48 Through Masonic Windows

by Kenneth D. Roberts, FF5

ON THE COVER

Sculpture in the entrance hall of the Tokyo Masonic Building depicting one of the important teachings of the Masonic Order This building is the center for Masonry in the Tokyo area and houses Tokyo Masonic Lodge #2, the Scottish Rite Bodies and other affiliated organizations. It is owned by the Zaidan Hojin Tokyo Masonic Association which is a non-profit charitable foundation established in 1955.

the Philalethes April 1998

The President's Corner

by Robert G. Davis, FPS

It is a great honor to serve as your International President. We are indeed an International Research Society. One of the great strengths of the Philalethes is that it provides a vehicle for fraternal dialogue on a global scale. It broadens who we are as Masons, and offers us a wholly different outlook on the concept of universality.

With our feeling as men and our work as Masons, we are taking part in the greatest of ventures-the enlightenment of the mind. It is the work of noble souls. And it has always been that way. The idea of learning and growing together as men is as old as Masonry itself. It occurs in Lodge, it happens when we meet informally as friends; it takes place when those of us who have something to write can deliver our insights to those who read. And it transpires electronically in global conversations on the Internet, which occurs thousands of times each day.

The Philalethes is about all of these things. Searching for Masonic light individually, sharing what we know with each other; and, in this great process, awakening the collective consciousness of our world. It's a glorious quest indeed.

And it deserves your thoughtful attention.

I encourage each of you to contribute what you know to those who most respect your opinions-in your various gatherings as Masons. I have found the members of the Philalethes Society to be the Masons who are the most often looked to for reflections on the issues facing Masonry today. And I hope that you will pen your insights and contribute regularly to our magazine. It is only as good as you make it. It is your magazine. And your contribution is important to all of us.

So help us if you can by writing articles regarding your particular area of Masonic interest. I can assure you the rest of us will be delighted to hear from you!

Over the next couple of years your Executive Board will be attempting to balance our emphasis on traditional Masonic research with the bolder scholarship that needs to be brought to the table of contemporary Masonic issues. It is time we made our contribution to today's Masonry. We will be asking you to bring your knowledge and insight to new and important fraternal issues-issues relating to survival, change, diversity, jurisprudence, culture, ritual, education, and societal i-& vance.

We have much to offer here. We need to roll up our sleeves and work together for the overall improvement and growth in Masonry. Ironically, I suspect this will mean that we will ultimately need to rediscover our roots and get back to the business of becoming what we once were.

My Brethren, it is never enough that we write history. We also need to make it! I look forward to working with you and hearing from you as we progress together for our wonderful society of friends and brothers.

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Report of the executive Board Meeting

of the Philalethes Society, 1998

The Executive Board of The Philalethes Society met in executive session in Suite 320 of the Hotel Washington, Washington, D.C., on Thursday, February 19, 1998, at 7:00 p.m., with the following members present: Royal C. Scofield, President; Robert G. Davis, First Vice President; Nelson King, Second Vice President and Editor of the philalethes; Wallace MeLeod, Executive Secretary; Forrest D. Haggard, Immediate Past President; Duane E. Anderson, Second Vice President Designate; and Kenneth D. Roberts, Business Manager. The meeting was called to order by the President, who requested Forrest Haggard to lead the group in prayer. The President observed that this would be his last meeting as President, and expressed his pleasure at having been able to serve.

Robert Davis outlined the new program that he plans to implement in his first year in office. There will be an international essay competition, in which submissions will be invited on four topics.

(1) What are the characteristics of a good Masonic education plan for officers, members, their families, potential members, and the general public?

(2) How might local lodges and grand lodges better use the resources found on the internet, the world-wide&web, etc?

(3) What paradigm shifts have transformed Freemasonry in the past, and what changes might we expect in the future?

(4) What changes should grand lodges make in their annual meeting format in order to best serve local lodges, officers, and members? The best essays will receive awards, and will be published in the magazine.

Wallace McLeod expressed his gratitude to the Business Manager and the Editor, for carrying out so many of the duties previously performed by the Executive Secretary. The Philalethes Society had agreed to collaborate with the Scottish Rite Research Society and the Masonic Service Association of North America, and possibly several other Masonic organizations, in assisting Capstone Productions to produce video-tapes.

Three Chapters under dispensation had fulfilled the requirements to re- ceive Charters, and these were awarded to: Allen E. Roberts Chapter, Boston, Massachusetts; Benjamin Franklin Chapter, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Arizona Chapter ('The Seekers"). Phoenix, Arizona. It was agreed that the Semi-Annual Meetings would be held in Boston in 1998 and in Toronto in 2000. (1999 is still to be arranged.) Kenneth Roberts noted that the Society continues to add to its membership, at the rate of about 35 new members per month. He reported that the expected revenue for the year 1998 should provide adequate funds to meet the Society's projected expenses at the current level of service.

Nelson King noted that the magazine continues to be well received. With regard to the Internet Activities, he reported that the main freemasonry.org site averages 1000 visitors every day; the Philalethes dedicated site draws 100 visitors a day; and the Philalethes List Server has more than 400 members. The CD-ROM containing the first 50 years of the magazine will be ready for mailing towards the end of March; it is dedicated to the memory of Allen E. Roberts. The Society is negotiating with the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania Education Committee about the possibility of enrolling several hundred new members.

It was agreed that the Executive Board should consider the question of continuing to support the Masonic Leadership Center at the Semi-Annual Meeting, after the Secretary has had a chance to submit a report. (At the Assembly and Feast, Benjamin B. French Lodge presented a check for $1000 to the Society, and this was turned over to the Masonic Leadership Center as an interim grant.)

To fill the three vacancies in the list of Fellows, the following brethren were selected: Kenneth D. Roberts, for his services as Business Manager; George Helmer, for his work in scanning every issue of the magazine so that it can be made into a CD-ROM; and M. S. "Mick" Enabnit, for art, design and layout of the philalethes for over twenty years.

The Board agreed with the committee on the Certificate of Literature that Alain Bernheim of Germany should receive the award for the best article published in the Philalethes for 1997. The Award of Merit was presented to Harley Silver and to Dick James. A vote of thanks was proposed to Forrest D. Haggard, for his eight years of devoted service on the Executive Board.

[A few features of the Assembly and Feast should be mentioned. Bro. Bill Gross, of the Phylaxis Society, presented special awards to Nelson King (making him a Fellow of the Society), and to Kenneth Roberts (celebrating the achievements of Allen E. Roberts). The following officers were installed: Robert C. Davis, President; Nelson King, First Vice President and Editor; Duane E. Anderson, Second Vice President; Wallace McLeod, Executive Secretary; Henry G. Law, Treasurer. The Philalethes Lecturer was Thomas Jackson, who delivered a superb talk entitled "What are We Trying to Save?" which is published in this issue.1

Respectfully submitted,

Wallace MeLeod, Executive Secretary

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From the Editor's Desk

The Philalethes May 1946 December 1996 CD-ROM is now available. This CD-ROM is viewable using most common graphical World Wide Web browsers such as Netscape or MS Internet Explorer. The files are also viewable using text based browsers such as Lynx. This CD-ROM is IS09600 compliant.

The philalethes May 1946 December 1996 CD-ROM contains all the articles published in the philalethes Magazine from May 1946 December 1996 and celebrates 50 years of publication of that magazine and is fully indexed. This CD-ROM is dedicated to the Memory of our late Executive Secretary Allen E. Roberts. FPS. the philalethes May 1946 - December 1996 CD-ROM can be purchased for $100.00 US postage paid from: The Philalethes CD-ROM P0 BOX 70 110 Quince Avenue Highland Springs VA USA 23075

So if you have not yet sent in your $100.00 to Kenneth Roberts, BPS our Business Manager, now is the time to do it.

o0o

At the Annual Feast and Forum, it It was announced that the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania's Committee on Education will be 'purchasing several hundred memberships in The Philalethes Society. We congratulate them on their foresightfulness, and hope that other jurisdictions take notice and follow suit. Below is the Mission Statement of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania's, Committee on Education, and I thank Matthew Dupee, MPS for providing it to us. The Mission of Freemasonry The Free and Accepted Masons are the world's oldest and most respected fraternal organization composed of men who share a belief in God, practice charity and subscribe to high moral and ethical ideals, joined together in fellowship to develop and enhance their moral, intellectual and social character with the goal of improving the quality of life for themselves, their families and their communities. Who we are? men who share a belief in God, practice charity and subscribe to high moral and ethical ideals joined together in fellowship. What we do? develop and enhance the moral, intellectual and social character [of our members] Why we do it? to improve the quality of life for ourselves, our families and our communities.

o0o

One of the proudest moments of my Masonic Career took place at our Annual Feast and Forum when William Gross, BPS on behalf of Joseph A. Walkes Jr., BPS, President of The Phylaxis Society, informed the assembly that I had been elected a Fellow of The Phylaxis Society. I am deeply honored by the presentation, and the Fellowship.

Editor

Dear Editor:

On 18 February 1998 it was reported in the press that the British government is going to establish a registration list of all Freemasons who work as: Judges, Magistrates, Police Officers, Prison Officers and Probation Officers. Disclosure of membership will be required of all new recruits and appointees (after establishment of the list) and voluntary for existing employees. However, if existing employees do not "volunteer" themselves in sufficient numbers, then further legislation will be enacted to make their registration compulsory too. The register will apply to only England and Wales - not Scotland or Northern Ireland. The register will apply to only Freemasons and not to any other society or organization. It will be published in local public libraries throughout the country The Rt. Hon. Jack Straw MP, the Home Secretary, is quoted as saying: -"Membership of secret societies such as Freemasonry can raise suspicions of a lack of impartiality. It is therefore important, that the public know the facts." This is a very sad day for Freemasonry. That the Home Secretary should classify Freemasonry as a "secret society" when it is not is indicative of the levels of paranoia and unreasoning antimony towards the Order. How can an institution which has a very large head- quarters in London, which is open to the public and provides conducted tours be described as a "secret society?" The country and the world are full of societies which do not publish lists of their membership. For example, the Labor Party does not publish a list of its members in every' library around the country. Does this make the Labor Party a secret society? Should I not have a right to know of a public official with whom lam dealing is a member of the Labour Party (or any other political party)? Likewise, what about a member of secretive religious cults? Is this indicative of a masonic conspiracy to infiltrate and pervert the course of justice? I think not. I wonder how many of these judges are members of a Golf Club? Do Golf Clubs publish their membership lists? How many "deals" are concocted covertly on the golf course so that they can be "rubber stamped" later? So, to anyone who approves of this government proposal, I have the following questions: Q Why should Freemasonry be considered a secret society when other "societies" are far more secretive?" Q Why should Freemasonry be con- sidered a "threat" when it forbids itself to be involved in Politics or Religion?" Consider how many other secret(ive) societies positively do involve themselves in Politics and/or Religion. Q Why should only Freemasonry publish its membership list and not ALL private societies? Q Why should Freemasons have to disclose themselves when they are the subject of unfair discrimination? FACT: A friend of mine in the Police was recently forced to resign from his Lodge in order to be selected for a new posting. He had been told in no uncertain terms that his police career was being adversely affected by his membership of Freemasonry. This officer was only a Constable it's not as if he was a senior ranking officer. For details of the press reports, go to

http//www/.the-times.co.uk/ you will need to register, then go to the index for the edition dated 18 Feb.1998 and look for the article "Straw to publish list of Masons joining police and judiciary.

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1998 FEAST AND FORUM LECTURE

What Are We Trying To Save?

by Thomas W, Jackson, FPS

I recall a quotation I heard many years ago, 'When you place your hand in a flowing stream, you touch the last that has gone before and the first that is yet to come." A man's relevant position in history and our position in Freemasonry is as that hand. We stand today as the hand in the flowing stream of Freemasonry touching the last that has gone before and the first that is yet to come. There is a distinctive difference, however, between the hand in the water and us. The hand has no power to change the ultimate destiny of the flow of the water. But we, my Brethren, have the capacity and the power to change the ultimate destiny of Freemasonry.

I want to make it totally clear that I speak to you today expressing my views and my opinions, and mine only. I speak for no Masonic Body. I do speak, however, as one who has spent 36 very active years in Freemasonry, 18 of them as Grand Secretary. I speak as one who has made some effort to study this Craft and has a great concern about its future.

Freemasonry has existed in some form probably at least since the 14th century we think In its organized speculative form it has existed since 1717 we know. Although we cannot be sure of what it was originally, we think we know what it is now. But do we?

Freemasonry has been defined in many glowing terms by Freemasons for a long period of time and in less than glowing terms by its detractors for an equally long period of time. The definitions are there, and yet there are precious few who truly know what we are, and that includes us.

We look with regret at not being as significant in today's world as we were in yesterday's because our numbers are not as great. We evaluate ourselves in terms of quantity instead of quality and that is an unfortunate appraisal of the Craft for it has caused us also to lose sight f what we were. Our attempt to return to former influence may, therefore, be unachievable, for if we don't know what we are how can we hope to become what we were. One thing is certain, however, if we con- tinue to change from what it was which made us great we reduce the chance to regain that greatness.

Think for a moment of how much time and money you have invested in this Craft. Now multiply that investment by tens of millions. The resultant figures are astronomical. Why have we done this? There has to be some stimulating factor which has caused the Craft to be carried in its speculative form for almost 300 years. I would suggest that it was the constancy of its purpose and the positive image it projected to the world.

We have for the last two decades been concentrating our best leadership ability on an issue which we perceive to be the greatest threat against our integrity the loss of our quantity. It is significant that we are not a static organization. Freemasonry is an ever evolving entity, and change cannot be opposed because it is change, but nor should it be accepted for its own sake. We each have an obligation to be certain that any change we make will be of a benefit to the Craft or, more importantly, at least not a detriment. In analyzing this evolution we find one constant denominator that did not vary through all its years the emphasis on the quality of its membership, which in turn probably has been the primary reason for most Member affiliations. We projected to the world an image which good men wanted to be part of.

We have probably changed Freemasonry overall more in the last 20 years than was done in the prior 250, and what have we accomplished? We certainly have not stopped the decline in numbers for which reason we made most of the changes. We have, however, managed to reduce our attractiveness to the professional class which comprised much of our membership. Perhaps the time has arrived for us to examine more closely what has been done and what has been the result. Let's take the time to analyze what we have accomplished and honestly answer and acknowledge where we have failed. We have not stopped the bleeding of numbers, but we sure have reduced our influence from what it once was. I propose that Freemasonry became as great as it did, and remained as great as it has, for three primary reasons. Reason #1 it was probably the first organization to accept, at least philosophically, men from all sta- tions of life as equals. Reason #2 it attracted some of the greatest minds that ever lived. Reason #3 it remained selective on the quality of the man it would accept.

The deletion of any one of these reasons would have prevented the Craft from becoming what it did or remaining as it has, and I am convinced that the loss of any one will also destroy it, at least in the historic form for which it is known. It, therefore, behooves us to ask what are we trying to save?

Make no doubt about it, my Brothers, Freemasonry is the greatest organization ever conceived by the mind of man. It has impacted the evolution of civil society beyond that of any organization outside of organized religion. There can be no doubt that without Freemasonry the civilized world, in its present form, probably would not ex1st. The world is as it is today because Freemasonry lived.

Recognizing these facts, my Brothers, we have inherited an awesome responsibility, one of more than just keeping the name Freemasonry alive. We must keep it a viable force that can display to the world what is good and right in mankind, an enclave of toleration in an intolerant world, a unique organization in a world that needs that unique-& ness, an organization known worldwide by the quality of its membership. We are making many decisions today, however, that seem to indicate a lack of interest in preserving the integrity of the Craft. We seem more intent on redefining and reshaping it in almost any manner to fit into what we perceive to be what society wants us to be. But, we must be more than that. Freemasonry leads not follows.

We have always been distinctively different from any other organization. Why should we attempt to change into something someone else wants us to be? The world needs Freemasonry. There is nothing out there to replace us. We must make sure the world knows.

It sometimes defies logic to put so much effort into programs that are geared to emulate the principle purposes of other organizations which are declining in membership more rapidly than are we. Not only can we~ not hope to be more significant than they in their field of endeavor to begin with, but none have ever reached that pinna- cle of greatness that we have. If we are not succeeding by emulating, should we not be considering building upon our uniqueness? We are what we are because of it. First, however, we must understand the cause of the de dine.

We look at the loss of membership and interest and have the tendency to blame ourselves for what we deem to be a failure in our structure and our leadership. My Brethren, I honestly do not believe that any difference in our structure or our leadership would have shown results much different than they do today.

The loss in membership can neither be blamed solely on inadequacy of leadership or failure of our system. Our purpose and precepts have carried us through changing societies for centuries. Why should it now be judged a failure because our numbers fluctuate even as they have fluctuated in the past. We are no different in terms of membership decline than almost all other organizations today, including most religions. The clime of society today simply is different and not geared to organizational interests that place restrictions on its activities.

Because society lowers its standards does not mean we must do the same to attract them. Indeed, we have an obligation to the future to lead the way to what is morally and ethically right, to be more than just average in society. In essence, to be what we have always been. I feel strongly that we are looking at a sociological phenomenon, one prob- ably created by our attempt to make life easier for each succeeding generation and which must run its course before we find a redevelopment of interest in our way of life. We must realize that there is no immediate spontaneous solution to our decline in numbers. We must acknowledge that this is a problem not localized to either area or organization. It is time for us to recognize that our decrease in numbers is due to a sociological condition of the time and not to our inability to cope with change.

The pendulum will swing, my Brothers; there will be a renewed interest in a quality organization based upon our philosophical principles. But, will Freemasonry as a quality organization be there to accept those interested? I quote from Rejections on Masonic Values. "If we shall not be careful in the admission of candidates and improve the procedure of admission, we are then starting the composition of a funeral hymn for the death of our noble institution. As Freemasons, we should not allow this to happen. If and when we do, we are doomed for we have just hammered the last nail in the sarcophagus of Freemasonry." In this, I agree wholeheartedly with the author.

A few years ago the Dallas Morning News had an article written by historian A. C Creen regarding the Craft. In it he said, "There used to be a time when it meant something to be a Mason, it showed a level of class." Historians are finally writing about Freemasonry, but they are writing about the quality of the organization not the quantity. Freemasonry for generations has been known by those outside of it for its constancy of purpose and as A. C. Green said, "A level of class." We the leaders of the present have made us as we are perceived by the public today. We are the internal variable of the Craft. Freemasonry, my Brothers, is more than a name. It is an ideal. So what are we trying to save the name or the ideal?

We have evolved into the world's greatest charitable

organization, but Freemasonry is not a charity Its avowed purpose is to take good men and make them better. By making good men better, we improved the quality of the world, but of what value will be our charitable nature if we fail to survive. We cannot continue to concentrate most of our efforts on raising money to give away. We must focus greater effort on Freemasonry's survival as the world's premiere organization. We cannot buy admiration and respect. To be charitable is an admirable quality, but our charitable characteristic must be secondary to our primary purpose.

Freemasonry's goal has been to start with the best we can find and improve that best. This goal, out of necessity, implies selectiveness. The selectiveness was based upon the quality of the man. Our Craft has been unique in that it has been able to take men from all walks of life socially, economically, culturally, etc., and provide an environment wherein the similarities of good are far more important than differ- ences of type. I suspect the quality of the man is perhaps the major intangible force which is what brought and held us together. Freemasonry carries with good men much further than any other organization.

This is why we have found in Freemasonry Lodges of quality men. Without quality men there can be no quality organization. Quality will attract quality, and quality will ensure survival. We must always remember that Freemasonry was never meant to be an organization for every man. We cannot hope to grow or even remain the same by lowering our standards.

We acknowledge that only 10% of our Members are active. That of course means that 90% are inactive. Yet, they retain their membership. They pay their dues each year knowing fill well that they will never participate in Lodge activities. There is only one logical reason why they do that. They see a value to being able to say, "I am a Freemason." There is a perceived value by them to membership. Take away the perceived value of association with a quality organization and we risk losing the 90%.

Freemasonry has had in its ranks men whose names are etched upon the headstones of eternity names to be not forgotten. What was the force which drew them in? I suggest it was an organization which embraced high ideals and principles, nurtured those ideals and principles 2 and stimulated aspirations to greatness. And thus we became great with them. One feeds upon the other Great men make great organizations, and great organizations can make men great Likewise, the loss of one must result in the loss of the other. Freemasonry must never resign itself to be less than it can be. We must always seek great men and seek to make men great.

There is no question that the environment in which we exist has changed. Now we must determine whether we wish to retain our principles and values and lift others to meet our ideals or change to fit into today's environment and thus step down to meet their present day standards.

Do we truly believe in the philosophy upon which we existed for over 300 years or not? Have we become an anachronism in present day society? Have our principles and values actually had no place for the last quarter century? I think not. If we truly do believe we are right, if we truly do believe that our philosophy and principles have a place in the modem world, then we must continue to pull others up to meet with us, not climb down to meet with them.

Our vision must be expanded. We must stop looking at long term plan- ning in spans of 5, 10, or 25 years. We are simply too important to the world to limit our vision. We must look in spans of 50 100 or 200 years. To do so, however, we as leaders must not only be capable of fully understanding our past but also be capable of seeing our potential for the future.

I am convinced that we are creating one of our greatest problems by mak- ing the Craft too easily obtainable and retainable. Of what value can anyone be to us if he lacks either the interest or the ability to be a Freemason except in name, if his projection to society is not positive?

During all the low points in Masonic history, and there have been some, there is no evidence that decisions were made which affected our basic precepts or reduced the quality of the Craft. Nor was it found necessary to make major procedural changes in our methods of operation to recover from membership loss. We seem intent today in reducing all barriers for membership regardless of cost, and the result is evident. We have required less, and less is what we have received. I quote Maureen Dowd from The New York Times, The minute you settle for less than you deserve, you get even less than you settled for." My Brothers, we deserve more than what we are getting today.

When we evolved from a Fraternity of the practitioner to the Fraternity of the idealist, we forged the character that was idealistic. What is happening to that idealism, that noble philosophical precept of the Craft today, when we no longer believe that if we are great we do not have to ask others to join with us. Are we no longer capable of projecting the image which carried us for centuries, the one that stimulated others to want to be part of us?

John Robinson made the observation, "The problem with Freemasonry is that it does not practice Freemasonry anymore." And how can we when the vast majority of our Members do not even know what to practice. We are confronted today with monumental problems concerning our integrity as an institution. Many of the problems are originating outside the Craft, but, regretfully, most originate from within. Those from within should be more readily solvable3 but we as leaders must be willing to sacrifice our egos for the welfare of the Craft. We must be willing to surrender personal ambition for the sake of the future of Freemasonry.

Where Freemasonry goes from here is up to us. Our hand is in the flowing water of the Craft. If we are trying to save the name, we may succeed. If we are trying to save the ideal, we are not succeeding. This Craft will not be measured in the future by its quantity any more than historians are measuring it today by that standard. It will be judged by its quality. If we cannot have both at any given time, then we must choose. Which do we want? Which will serve the Craft and, therefore, the world the best in the centuries to come? Can there truly be more than one answer? The quality of the Craft must not be permitted to continue to decline. We must recognize that the organization is much larger than the combination of all of its component pans. We say we are a Brotherhood of Men under the Fatherhood of God, a Fraternity d& signed to make good men better If this is what we are trying to save, we should reexamine our approach.

If we make good men better, we succeed in the purpose of the Craft, and these better men will then continue to lead the world. If we fail, the whole world loses, and I personally don't want to be remembered as part of the generation of leaders who destroyed the Craft.

Give it some though, my Brothers. What are we trying to save?

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GOD, MATHEMATICS, AND MASONRY

Why are Sundials in Scottish Lodges?

by James L Sieber, MPS

"Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees, which is gone down in the sun dial of Ahaz, ten degrees backwards. So the sun returned ten degrees by which degrees it has gone down." Isaiah 38:8 KJV1

Freemasons are very familiar with the three words in the title. They are, or should be, scholars of Masonry, believers in the one God, the Great Architect of the Universe, and know that mathematics, or rather geometry, is the basis of the fraternity. Most Freemasons, when asked for the connection between the fraternity and mathematics, indicate that the working tools of mathematics and geometry, such as the com- passes and rulers, are used as symbols to teach moral and spiritual lessons in Freemasonry. This paper's theme is that mathematics, for our forefathers, had a much closer tie and purpose. The sundial is used as an example. It is a mathematical instrument whose understanding operative masons used for very practical purposes. Philosophical masons used the sundial's theory to help understand God and His universe. Masonic scholars made many claims for Freemasonry's parents. The author feels its operative connections come from Scotland and also the German stonemeasurers, the French companions, and the Roman colleges.2 Its philosophical foundations descended from numerous sources including the hermetic movement, the Cabala, the Rosicrucians, the enlightenment, and the scientific revolution. Hermetic refers to ancient knowledge. The Christian Cabala adopted the philosophy of the Jewish Kabbalah. The scientific revolution used experiments and observations to understand the universe.

Scotland's modern Masonic fraternity existed by the sixteenth century. The 1598 Schaw Statutes indicate at least six lodges3 in Scotland. The Grand Lodge of Scotland4 shows five current lodges in the sixteenth century and nineteen by 1700. These were operative lodges responsible for the social life of a closely related guide or corporation and, in some cases, fulfilled the dual purpose. In 1598 James I appointed William Schaw as Master of Work. He was responsible for officially organizing Scotland's lodges by setting down requirements and conditions5 and he set up the first official and continuing structure of modern Freemasonry. Additionally, in 1601 he signed the St. Clair Charter recognizing William Sinclair of Rosin and his descendants as hereditary patrons of masons for all times. History claims the hereditary Grand Master of the Guilds had been his forefather Sir Henry St. Clair, Baron of Rosslyn and a Knight Templar.6 The masons in Scotland recognized this relationship in 1736, when forming the current Grand Lodge of Scotland, by electing the then current Sir William St. Clair as first Grand Master. He then resigned any claim as Hereditary Patron. The current Earl of Rosslyn is not a Freemason but some believe he would be elected Grand Master if he joined the craft. The philosophical side of Freemasonry existed in the seventeenth century with the Vitruvius emphasis of the profession of architect being accepted. St. Clair was claimed to be a Rosiaucian. Sir Robert Moray, initiated into Edinburgh Lodge in 1641, was the son in-law of a collector of Rosicrucian literature.

A lodge demonstrating movement from operative to non-operative is the Lodge of journeymen Masons. In 1708 the Lodge of Edinburgh, Mary Chapel, No. 1, had disagreements with some operative masons. They left and formed their own lodge, now No.8. Lodge No.1 had the Master and War- dens of the new lodge thrown into jail for starting a competing lodge in the city. They appealed and now hanging on the East wall of the lodge is the decree of the High Court of Edinburgh granting the right to meet and confer the Mason's Word. They claim to be the only recognized lodge in the world without a charter. The strong historical tie between operative masons and the current Fraternity does not exist else where. England had operative lodges but that structure did not continue to become the modern fraternity. The Lodge of Industry, No.48, Newcastle, England, claims to be the only lodge in England started as a purely operative lodge.7

On the North wall of both Lodge No. 1 and Cannongate Kilwinning Lodge No.2 in Scotland are sundials. When asked their use, a Scottish brother answered "It likely is to indicate the time of the meeting." However, nothing is done in Freemasonry but has its true Masonic meaning. When closing lodge, the Senior Warden is asked, "What time it is in the West." He looks at the sundial, answers that the sun is at high twelve and finishes his ritual.8 In many jurisdictions, the Junior Warden has the duty of observing the sun at high meridian and calling the craft off and onto labor. Since located in the South and facing North, this is only possible by viewing some indicator such as a sundial. In Scotland the most complicated sundials are called Masonic dials.9 Master masons were skilled dialers and credited with the design of many of Edinburgh's old dials. The skill of dialing was taught in the education and apprenticeship of the craft.

From time immemorial ancient civilizations, especially in Egypt, Mexico, and England studied the sun's movement. One can visit Mexico's Mayan observatory at Chicken Itza. Egypt's great pyramid has a passage where the sun shines down only at high noon on the summer solstice.10 In the book, Stonehedge, An Ancient Masonic Temple,11 the stones' layout shows the builders understood how to find high noon, North, the sun's rising and setting angles, and the solstices. How could ancient brothers find true East or North? In the novel, The Pillars of the Earth,12 the Master Builder at daybreak places a rod at the future altar's location. His helper, the Prior of the Monastery, takes another rod with a needle eye and goes in the direction of the rising sun. The Master Builder directs him so, as the sun comes over the horizon, he will see the rising sun directly through the rod's eye. This was done on the birthday of the Monastery's Saint and gave the layout of the cathedral. One method for finding true North or high twelve is to draw several circles around a long vertical pole. As the morning progresses, mark the exact spot where the top of the pole's shadow passes over one of the circles. In the afternoon again mark the exact spot where the top of the pole's shadow passes over the same circle. Place stakes at these two points. Using a fixed length piece of rope for a compass, place one end of the rope at the stakes and use it to form arcs of the same diameter around each stake. Call the point where these two arcs meet, point A. Draw another line from the original pole through the point A. This will be the North-South and high noon line. The ancients observed that this line was directed at a star which they called the North star.

Although this line is sufficiently correct for early man's uses, the earth's North Pole leans with respect to the sun and its path around the sun is not a circle but an ellipse. This line will have a minor error except for four times of the year, close to the June 21 Summer Solstice, the December 21 Winter Solstice, and the equinoxes. However those dates correct only the one error. The above construction finds the true North on June 14, September 2, December 25, and April 16. The minor error follows a fixed schedule called the Equation of Time. This equation indicates that most simple sundials will need a correction of at most fifteen minutes depending on the time of the year. Since a table exists depending only on the time of year, good dials will often have engraved correction data. Many remember when clocks regularly gained or lost. Before radios were common, clocks were set using a sundial. The French railroad used sundials with corrections into the twentieth century. Two of the special sundial days, namely the longest and shortest days of the year or solstices, are named St. John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist Days after the patron saints of Freemasonry. Freemasonry uses the winter's solstice to start the new Masonic year and some Grand Lodges have special celebrations on the summer solstice. Currently St. John the Evangelist Day is not celebrated on the shortest day. Since the Winter Solstice was originally a pagan holiday and so close to Christ's birthday, its celebration was moved a couple days to avoid a conflict. The need for a sundial that gave the seasons was of utmost importance to the ancients for planting and harvesting crops. This is why the oldest sundials in Egypt, England, and Mexico give the solstices and the equinoxes. Solomon's temple was started on the twenty-first day of April. Depending on the calendar used, this day may have been picked since the sun would of been rising almost at the exact East.

Types of sundials include the equatorial, horizontal, vertical, cylindrical, and pocket. Each type requires a different theory. Most modern sundials, especially in America, are designed for decoration and not for correctness. They often have errors in the slope of the gnomons. They lack different spacing between the hour lines, adjustment for being off the dateline, and the Equation of Time, which cannot be eliminated in simple sundials. To build a correct sundial, the longitude and latitude are needed. When buying a sundial, one should check if its gnomon is adjusted or can be adjusted to the latitude. On a horizontal sundial, the spacing between the numbers should increase as they move from high twelve.

The simplest sundial to build is the equatorial. A circular band is marked in 24 equal segments and the 24 hours, or at least the daylight hours, are marked on it. An arrow is placed perpendicular to the circular band and passing though the center. This arrow is called the gnomon. The band and arrow must be directed so that the band is parallel to the earth's equator and the arrow points North. Rotate the band so the arrow's shadow is on the correct time. The best time is one of the days indicated by the Equation of Time. By setting it with a watch, correctness for longitude will be made. Central Pennsylvanians need this correction of about fifteen minutes because their longitude is so far from the Philadelphia dateline for the Eastern time zone. The circular band should be in position so that the arrow forms an angle equal to the site's latitude with the horizontal.

The operative mason needed the theory of building sundials to lay out buildings and determine the time of day. He built sundials on the cathedrals' walls to indicate the times for religious services. The philosophical mason used mathematics and the sundial's theory for a completely different reason. In the book, War and Peace,13 the candidate is told the purpose of Freemasonry is a mystery, upon which the fate of mankind depends but that one cannot hope to discover it readily until after long and hard study. Roscoe Pound, the former Dean of Harvard Law School and America's most famous Masonic philosopher, claims that George Oliver (1782-1867) would give as the purpose of Freemasonry, "It is one with its end with religion and science. Each of these are means through which we are brought into relation with the absolute. These are the means through which we know God and his works."14 Mathematics, the Queen of the sciences as well as one of the Liberal Arts, was used by the fraternity's founders and philosophers from the earliest ages as a tool to understand God and His universe. In Milton's Paradise Lost, God, the Supreme Geometer, marks out the boundaries of the universe He is about to create.

Then stayed the firvid wheels, and in his hand He took the golden compasses, prepared In God's eternal store, to circumscribe This universe, and all created things. 15

Many of the leading philosophers of all time were also leading mathematicians. The Pythagorean School, from which the Fraternity claims ritual and philosophy, was a school of mathematics which claimed all things were numbers. The Pennsylvania Past Masters jewel is a drawing of the 47th proposition of Euclid. Plato had a sign outside his temple that said, "Let no man ignorant of geometry enter here." He considered knowledge of mathematics as a prerequisite of citizenship.16 Vitruvius, a leading architect at the time of Augus- tus, published books using Greek mathematics for the designs.17 He di- vided architecture into the art of building, the making of timepieces, and construction. On an architect's education, he says he should be experienced with knowledge of many branches of study. These include drawing, geometry, optics, arithmetic for use in calculating costs and supplies, history so that statutes are appropriate, philosophy for ethics and honestly, physics for plumbing, music, medicine to under- stand the healthiness of buildings, and astronomy. Alberti 18 in 1452 discussed the education of architects and put emphasis on branches of mathematics and moral behaviors. They were followed in 1570 by Palladio 19 publishing detailed drawings and construction formulas using their works. Mathematics and most types of reasoning were depressed during the dark ages in Western Europe. Independent thinking that did not completely agree with the church leaders was eliminated and whole Christian sects were destroyed along with their writings. The East did continue to study Greek thinking and mathematics. It reentered into the West with the Moor conquest of Spain, crusaders such as the Knight Templars learning the wisdom while in the East, and the Turk invasions forcing scholars to move West. The invention 20 of printing encouraged these works to be translated into Latin and other languages. The Renaissance indicates a renaissance of interest in the knowledge of the ancients.

The Reformation, Renaissance, Enlightenment, and scientific revolution found intellectuals trained in mathematics and the philosophies of the time. The Rosicrucian fraternity surfaced during this period. Leading philosophers included Descartes, the mathematician who invented the Cartesian xy-coordinate system and was the father of modern philosophy; Leibniz, the co-inventor of calculus, whose philosophy was that this world is the best of all possible worlds, and who was claimed to be a Rosicrucian and Freemason; and Sir Isaac Newton, the other co inventor of calculus and also claimed to be a Rosicrucian.21 Big names in the preMasonic history of the Masonic movement includes Court Michael Matier, a supposed Rosicrucian writer; Robert Fludd, a leading mathematician of his time; and John Dee, a mathematician, tutor of Elisabeth I, and supposedly a Rosicrucian. Even Desaguliers, the second Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of England (1719), who was rumored to have helped Dr. Anderson write the first Constitutions, was a publishing mathematician in addition to being a minister.

During the Enlightenment, scholars no longer assumed that man and the earth were the center of the universe. They used mathematical thinking to reason the laws of nature and show that the world and universe followed them. They attempted to use these mathematical methods to prove the existence of God. The sundial, although from a much earlier time, was one of the first developments of the mathematical laws of nature. The theory showed the sun and the earth followed a prescribed pattern. The ancient citizens of Stone hedge and Egypt discovered these patterns and used them to find a God who ran all things and they built their temples to worship him. In the Enlightenment, the scholars saw God as the architect of the earth and it was God who set in motion the laws of nature. They viewed God as a mathematician. This is best represented by a picture showing God with a pair of dividers designing the earth. The Renaissance had three mathematical periods. First was the study of ancient knowledge such as the writings of Plato and Vitruvius. Second, mathematical logic was used to reason about God being the designer and builder of the world. Senior citizens will remember high school geometry's assumptions and propositions where the technical results were not important but rather their proofs. The last period can be characterized by Sir Isaac Newton using mathematics to develop the laws of the planets. Modern physics describes the history of the earth from several milliseconds after the big bang. Some scientists claim the laws of physics and nature could not have happened randomly and therefore there must be a supreme power who set those laws in motion.

Today, books are still being written using mathematics to try to under- stand God and the universe. Steven Brams in his book, Superior Beings,22 uses game theory tools to discuss whether God wants to reveal Himself to us. Paul Davies in The Mind of God 23 re-examines the existence of the universe and the unlikelyhood that the universe developed randomly. Mathematical tools and thinking were the working tools of the frater- nity's operative founders as well as the philosopher founders. The sundial symbolizes these tools much more that any other. Its understanding requires a knowledge of the passages of the earth and sun and brings the master builder, Renaissance philosopher, and each of us to a closer understanding of the hand of God and of His Universe. References of interest used for background but not earlier referenced include the following. Rene Rohr wrote a popular overview of sundials and is available in many bookstores.24 For those with craft working ability, there are easy plans by Milton Stoneman 25 and Jenkins and Bear.26 Books covering sundials and timekeeping devices include J. Jefferson and J. FitzRandolph's, From Sundials to Atomic Clocks,27 Alice Morse Earle's Sun-dials and Roses of Yesterday, 28 and Frank Cousins' Sundials: The Art and Science of Gnomonics.29 Related books include Yates,30 Weisberger,31 Silberer,32 Barrow, 33 Ghyka34 and Mitchell.35

Presented to the Collegium Pennsylvania, Masonic Societas Rosicruciana in Civitatibus Foederatis on the Summer Solstice, June 21, 1997. Dr. Sieber is a professor of Mathematics and Computer Science at Shippensbrug University and a member of the Collegium Pennsylvania.

Footnotes

l. Also see 2Kings20:ll

2. Nelson "Freemasonry and Architecture," The Philalethes, L, pp.38-46, April, 1997.

3. David Stevenson, The First Freemasons; scotlands' Early Lodges and Their Members, Aberdeen University Press, Aberdeen, 1988: see pages l8and98.

4. Grand Lodge of A.F&A.M. of Scotland, Yearbook, 1996, Edinburgh.

5. David Stevenson, The Origins of Freemasonry; Scotlands Century 1590-17]O, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988.

6. Tim Wallace-Murphy, The Templar Legacy & The Masonic Inheritance within Rosslyn Chapel, Friends of Rosslyn, Rosin, Scotland.

7. Minual Festival Booklet, Lodge of Industry, No.48, Monday, 27th March, 1995.

8. Private correspondence.

9. David MacGibbon and Thomas Ross, The castellated and Domestic Architecture of Scotland from the Twelfth to the Eighteenth Century, Edinburgh, 1987-92, Vol. 5, pp.375-514 (Chapter of Sundials), pp.515- 570 (chapter on Early Scottish Masters of Work).

10. Prof. Wm.Estep, The Great Pyramid: Book of Sacred Mysteries, The Super Mind Science Temple Detroit.

11. Russell A ilemer, Stonehedge: An Ancient Masonic Temple, Macoy, Richmond, 1984.

12. Ken Follett, The Pillars of the Earth, Signet-Penguin Book, 1989, pp.339.

13. Lee Tolstoy, War and Peace, translated by Ann Dnnnigan, Pengium Press, 1968;

14. Melvin Maynard Johnson, Masonic Addresses and Writings of Roscoe Pound, Macoy, Richmond, 1953, page 64.

15. Alex Horne, Sources of Masonic Symbolism, Macoy, Richmond, VA, 1981,pp.56.references this to Edmund Spenser, laerie Queene, London, 1617,11,ix, 22.

16. Wilhelm Magnus, "The Significance of Mathematics: The Mathematicians' Share in the General Human Condition," American Mathematical Monthly, March 1997, pp. 261-269.

17. Vitruvius, The Ten Books of Architecture, Translated by Morris Hicky Morgan, Ph.D., LL.D., Dover, New York, 1960.

18. Leon Battista Albert, The Ten Books of Architecture, The 1755 Leoni Edition, Dover Publications, New York' 1986.

19. Andrea Palladio, The Four books of Architecture, Dover Publications, New York, 1965.

20. Morris Kline, Mathematics in Western Culture, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1953.

21. Joy Hancox, The Byrom Collection; Renaissance Thought, The Royal Society, and The Building of the Globe Theater, Jonathan Cape, London, 1992.

22. Steven 1. Banns, Superior Beings: if They Exist, How would We Known~ Springer-Verlag, New York, 1983.

23. Paul Davies, The Mind of God 'The Scientific Basis for a Rational World, Orion Publications, 1992.

24. Rene R. S. Rohr, Sundials: history Theory and Practice, Dover Publications, New York, 1996.

25. Milton Stonemason, Easy-To-Make Wooden Sundials, Dover Publications, New York, 1996.

26. Gerald Jenkins and Magdalene Bear, Sun dials & timedials, Tarquin Publications, Norfolk, England, 1987.

27. James Jespersen & Jane Fitz-Randolph, From Sundials to Atomic Clocks, Dover Publications, 1982.

28. Alice Morse Earle, Sun-dials and Roses of Yesterday, includes a chapter on Rosecians.

29. Frank W. Cousins, Sundials: The Art and Sciences of Gnomonics, PICA Press, New York, NY

30. Frances A. Yates, The Rosicrucian Enlightenment, Barnes and Noble, New York, 1972.

31. R. William Weinbeger, Speculative Freemasonry and the

Enlightenment, East European Monographs, Boulder, 1993.

32. Herbert Silberer, Hidden Symbolism of Alchemy and the Occult Arts, Dover, New York, 1971.

33. John D. Barrow, Pi in the Sky: Counting Thinking and Being. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1992.

34. Matila cihyka, The Geometry of Art and Life, Dover, New York, 1977.

35.John Michell, The Dimensions of Paradise: The Proportions and Symbolic Numbers of Ancient Cosmology, Harper and Row, San Francisco, 1988.

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1998 BLUE FRIAR LECTURE

The High Degrees in the United States:

by S. Brent Morris, FPS, BF

1730-1830

Freemasonry in the United States of America had an unusual early history. Imported from Europe-England, Scotland, Ireland, France, and Germany-it quickly became one of the most important colonial organizations. "In the generation of the American revolution, Masonry's ability to embody the period's diverse cultural demands gave it enormous power."1 It remained an exclusive organization through the revolution, and then began expanding its membership base into the middle class. It is ironic that the Craft was attacked for its perceived elite influence as it began to open up its membership.

In 1826 in New York William Morgan published an expose of Masonic rituals.2 He was later abducted by Masons in Canandaigua, New York and subsequently disappeared. It was widely believed he had been murdered as part of a Masonic conspiracy. The public outcry' led to the creation of the first major "third party" in American politics, the Anti-Masonic Party. By 1830, Freemasonry was dead or sleeping in most of the United States. Like Pompeii after Vesuvius, nearly everything Masonic was destroyed by the eruption of anti-Masonry. It was not until 1840 that the fraternity began to recover from this nearly fatal blow.

Thus we can neatly frame the initial era of American Masonry between two events: the opening of the first lodge in about 1730 and the near destruction of the Craft by about 1830. Freemasonry grew and evolved in the United States during this period, primarily through importation of rites and degrees. The innovations that occurred were refinements, not wholesale manufacture of degrees. American Masons seemed well aware their fraternity was an European creation and looked to that continent as the source and origin of all that was "regular" in Masonry. There is little evidence of American ritual creativity at this time.

1730: The Beginnings of American Masonry

Like so many Masonic events, the first appearance of Freemasonry is not precisely known. Jonathan Belcher (16811757), a native of Cambridge, Massachusetts and later Governor of the Colonies of Massachusetts and New Hampshire from 1730-41 and the Colony of New Jersey from 1747-57, was made a Mason in London ca. 1704. He is one of the very few Masons known to have joined the Craft before 1717. It is possible he held private Lodges at his residence before time-immemorial or chartered Lodges appeared. On 5 June 1730, the premier Grand Lodge appointed Daniel Coxe (1673-1739) Provincial Grand Master for New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, giving the first official Masonic recognition of the English colonies. Bro. Coxe does not seem to have exercised his authority, even though he lived in New Jersey from 1731-1739. The Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania possesses a book marked "Liber B" which contains the records of the earliest known Pennsylvania and American Lodges. The first record is for 24 June 1731, and in that month Benjamin Franklin (1705-1790) is entered as paying dues five months back. Franklin's entry implies Lodge activity from at least December 1730 or January 1731. No earlier Lodge records exist in the United States, though there are suggestive comments in newspapers.6 Thus we are safe in setting 1730 as the date for the beginning of American Masonry.7 Whatever Masonic meetings may have been held before 1730 were not recorded, and activity after 1730 rapidly increased and is documented. As we move forward from 1730 we see an increasing Masonic presence in the English Colonies. The first lodge in Boston was constituted 30 July 1733, at the house of Edward Lutwych, an inn at the Sign of the Bunch of Grapes in King Street. In 1736, Solomon Lodge No.1 of Charleston, South Carolina held its first meeting. By 1738 there is evidence of Masonry in Savannah Georgia and New York City, and 1739 saw the meeting of the lodge at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Additional Provincial Grand Masters were appointed after Daniel Coxe from 1733 through 1787: twenty-two by the moderns, six by the ancients, and four by Scotland.

Most American Lodges originated from one of the British Grand Lodges- England, Scotland, and Ireland, though Germany, France, and other Grand Lodges issued charters. Traveling British military Lodges spread Masonry through much of North America as they initiated: civilians in the towns where they were stationed. Also imported from England was the rivalry between the Ancient and Modern Grand Lodges. Many states had competing Grand Lodges that eventually merged after the Union of 1813 in London, though South Carolina did not see Masonic unity until 1817. Modem Masons tended to be conservative in promoting the fraternity, prosperous, and loyalists, while Ancient Masons were aggressive in expanding Lodges, working class, and revolutionaries. After the American Revolution, United States Masonry was strongly Ancient in its organization and practice.

Prince Hall and African Lodge No.459

In 1775 John Batt initiated fifteen free African-Americans in Boston. Batt was Sergeant in the 38th Regiment of Foot, British Army and Master of Lodge No. 441, Irish Constitution. When the Regiment and Lodge de parted in 1776, the fifteen new Masons were left with a permit to meet, to walk on St. John's Day, and to bury their dead, but not to make Masons. They in turn applied to the Grand Lodge of Moderns for a warrant and were chartered as African Lodge No.459 on 29 September 1784 with Prince Hall as the first Master.8

In 1792 when the Grand Lodge of Massachusetts was formed, African Lodge did not join but remained attached to England. This could be due to loyalty to the premier Grand Lodge or to racism from the newly formed Grand Lodge. However, the Grand Lodge of Massachusetts also didn't recognize St. Andrews Lodge which had a Scottish charter.9 There is evidence that white Masons visited African Lodge and that England relied on Prince Hall for information on Boston Lodges.10 In any event African Lodge continued its separate existence until 1813 when it and all other English-chartered American lodges were erased from the roles of the newly formed United Grand Lodge of England. Then in 1827 officers of African Lodge declared themselves independent and constituted themselves as a Grand Lodge. From these origins grew the large, parallel Masonic organization known today as "Prince Hall Masonry."

The Influence of Itinerant Masonic Lecturers

The early forms of Masonic ritual in the United States are even less known that those in England and France. We do not have the large number of 18th century documents 4; Gothic constitutions, manuscript catechisms, memory aides-that can be found in Europe. Presumably the first rituals were transmitted mouth-to-ear, and Lodges may have patterned their ceremonies after some of the exposes, either imported or printed domestically. The first American expose was Benjamin Franklin's 1730 reprint of The Mystery of Freemasonry,, but there do not seem to have been any exposes of American ritual practices until the anti-Masonic period, Ca. 1826-1840.

'With a diversity of ritual sources, the work in American Masonic Lodges must have been variegated during the 1700s. This began to change in 1797 when Thomas Smith Webb (17711819) published The Freemasons Monitor or Illustrations of Masonry. It acknowledged that "The observations upon the first three degrees are many of them taken from Preston's 'Illustrations of Masonry,' with some necessary alterations" to make them "agreeable to the mode of working in America." 11 For example in the cornerstone ceremony, Preston says, "No private member, or inferior officer of a private lodge, is permitted to join in the ceremony. Webb is much more democratic and allows the participation of "such officers and members of private lodges as can conveniently attend."12 Webb was the first and most prominent of several Masonic Lecturers who toured the country teaching a uniform of ritual to Lodges, Chapters, and any other body they could convince to pay their fees. These lecturers often had side degrees" available for sale or as gifts. 'Webb trained Jeremy Ladd Cross (1783-1861) who succeeded Webb as the generally recognized chief ritualistic. Cross's great contribution was his 1819 The True Masonic Chart or Hieroglyphic Monitor. It was largely Webb's Monitor with a few small textual changes and one major visual addition: forty-two pages of engravings by Bro. Amos Doolittle.

Doolittle's engravings did more than illustrate Cross's text, they provided a memory map for students learning the ritual. Each image on a page was a milestone in the lectures. By associating an image with a portion of ritual, it was possible to mentally review an entire lecture by thumbing through a few pages of Cross's Chart. The book was very successful and has influenced the artwork in almost every subsequent American Masonic monitor.

Other Masonic lecturers trained by or with Webb and Cross include John Barney (1780-1847), James Cushman (1776-1829), David Vinton (d. 1833), and John Snow (1780-1852). They each seemed to concentrate on a different part of the country, much as salesmen have defined territories. There was some cooperation among the lecturers and not a small amount of competition. These teachers, with the aid of Cross's Chart and similar books, helped standardize ritual and spread ceremonies, such as the Royal and Select Master Degrees.

The Royal Arch

The first "high degree" to appear in America was the Royal Arch Degree. In fact, the first recorded conferral of this degree anywhere occurred in December 1753 at Fredericksburg Lodge in Virginia, where George Washington (1731-1799) was initiated an Entered Apprentice in 1752. The American Royal Arch ritual is based upon the story of Jeshua, Zerrubabel, and Haggai and the rebuilding of the second Temple in Jerusalem. The degree began to spread steadily throughout the colonies:

l758-organization of Jerusalem Chapter in Philadelphia;

l769-organization of St. Andrew's Chapter, Boston;

1790-organization of Cyrus Chapter Newburyport, Massachusetts; l792-organization of a Chapter in Charleston, South Carolina;

1794-organization of Harmony Chapter, Philadelphia.

Other unrecorded or forgotten degrees and chapters doubtlessly oc- curred. In 1795 the First Grand Charter was formed in Pennsylvania, and in 1797 the first national American organization was created-the General Grand Chapter of the New England States, which is today the General Grand Chapter. of the United States. Additional Grand Chapters quickly followed in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, and Rhode Island in 1798. By 1830 there were twenty-one Grand Chapters in the United States.13 The early conferral of the Royal Arch Degree seemed to be based on the authority inherent in the charter of a Lodge. Not surprisingly, it was Ancient Lodges that were most likely to see this high degree authority inherent in their charters. Royal Arch Chapter in the United States, in contrast to their English counterparts4 quickly organized themselves into state Grand Chapters and, with the exception of Pennsylvania and Virginia, quickly placed themselves under the authority of the General Grand Chapter. This federal form of Masonic government paralleled the federal government adopted with the U.S. Constitution in 1789.

One amusing quirk of American Royal Arch Masonry is worth noting: our presiding officer is not the King, representing Zerrubabel, but the High Priest, representing Jeshna. The generally accepted explanation is that American patriots couldn't stand to have a '~King" rule over them, even in a Masonic context Thus Royal Arch Chapter officers were reorganized to give the governing position to the High Priest. As Lodges had a "chair degree," the Past Master's Degree, it only made sense that the Royal Arch should have one too, and so the Order of High Priesthood came into being. It is not mentioned in Webb's 1796 Monitor, but it is in his 1802 edition as well as Cross's 1819 Chart. It is usually confer- red on High Priests before they can assume the Oriental Chair of Solo- mon. The degree, still worked today, may have had European ancestors, but its genealogy is uncertain. It is also known as the Order of Melchizedek, and there is mention of such an Order conferred in Massachusetts in 1789. It is not certain the degrees are connected by anything other than nanie.

The Growth of the Chapter Degrees

As in England the Royal Arch Degree in the United States can only be conferred on Past Masters. American practice soon required the conferral of the chair ceremony to qualify candidates as "virtual Past Masters." The Chapter degree seems to have contained the essential elements of the Lodge degree, but the candidate was given humorous trials and tribulations to endure. The earliest record of the Mark Degree is in 1783 at the Royal Arch Chapter in Middleton, Connecticut. Soon the Mark was adopted by Royal Arch

Chapters as the first in their sequence of degrees. This in contract to most European jurisdictions where the Mark is independent and controlled by its own Grand Lodge.

The Most Excellent Master Degree, a uniquely American degree in origin, first appeared by name at the Middleton Chapter with the Mark Degree in 1783. Its legend revolves around the completion of the Temple of Solomon and the placement of the keystone in the Royal Arch. It may contain elements from older European degrees, hut its current organization is unique to the United States. Thomas Smith Webb published a description of this degree in his 1797 monitor as the third of three degrees leading to the Royal Arch, and it has remained in that position until today. The sequence of degrees conferred in American Royal Arch Chapters since then (except for Virginia and West Virginia) is:

1. Mark Master Mason;

2. Past Master;

3. Most Excellent Master;

4. Royal Arch Mason;

5. Order of High Priesthood for High Priests.

The Cryptic Degrees

The Degrees of Royal and Select Master seem to have originated as side degrees available from itinerant Masonic lecturers. They are known collectively as the "Cryptic Degrees" or the "Cryptic Rite" because their legend deals with the secret vault or crypt beneath King Solomon's Temple. The Select Master Degree was conferred at Charleston, S.C. in 1783, and the Royal Master Degree in New York City in 1804. In 1810 the degrees became permanently associated together with the formation of Columbia Grand Council of Royal and Select Masters in New York City.'4 (Even though the "Grand" is in the name, the body was focal.)

Cross included these two degrees in his popular 1819 illustrated monitor, producing a nine degree system extending from Entered Apprentice to Select Master. The degrees were some times conferred in Royal Arch Chapters, but slowly emerged as independent Masonic bodies, governed by state Grand Councils of Royal and Select Masters and a national General Grand Council. The earliest independent Councils were formed in

1810-New York City,

1815-New Hampshire,

1817-Massachusetts, Virginia, and Vermont,

1818-Rhode Island and Connecticut.

By 1830 there were Grand Councils in ten states. Under the influence of Cross's Chart and other monitors, the Select Master3s Degree came to be viewed at the culmination of "Ancient Craft Masonry," even if Councils were found in only a few metropolitan areas and their degrees available to only a few. This is probably the beginning of the American 'York Rite," consisting of the Chapter of Royal Arch Masons, Council of Royal and Select Masters, and Commandery of Knights Templar.

Knights Templars and the American York Rite.

The first reference to a Masonic Templar degree is found in the minutes of St. Andrews Lodge, Boston, an Ancient Lodge, when on 9 April 1769, William Davis received the Excellent, Super Excellent, Royal Arch, and Knight Templar Degrees. South Carolina has a seal dated 1780, Maryland has a Templar diploma dated 1782, and New York records the degree in 1783. In 1796 the first Commandery (or Encampment or Priory) was established in Colehester, Connecticut, and eventually received a charter from England in 1803.15 Today in America a Commandery of Knights Templar confers the Order of the Red Cross, the Order of Malta, and the Order of the Temple on Christian Masons. In 1816 the Order of Malta was placed as the last degree in the series until 1916 when it returned to second place. The Red Cross legend is similar to the Knight of the East and Prince of Jerusalem detailing the return of Zerubbabel from Babylon to jerusalem to rebuild the Temple. It tells an interesting story and provides important background in understanding Masonic Temple legends, but it is entirely out of place among Christian chivalric orders. Nonetheless it remains and provides an important part of the York Rite legends.

Taken together, the Craft Lodge, Royal Arch Chapter, Royal and Select Council, and Knights Templar Commandery form the American "York Rite." The name is inexact as the degrees did not originate in York, England, but then again the Scottish Rite did not originate in Scotland. Lodges became widespread in the states, Chapters were found in larger towns, and Commanderies were less common. The broad base of the York Rite and its democratic government made it very popular in the United States. Reflecting the widespread belief that the York Rite was the purest and oldest form of Masonry, some American Grand Lodges originally styled themselves, "Ancient York Masons" (A.Y.M.).

The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite

The most notable high degree event in the United States occurred on 31 May 1801 when John Mitchell (ca. 1741-1816) elevated Frederick Daicho (1770-1835) to the 33rd Degree, and they then elevated another seven until there was a constitutional number to open a Supreme Council. Their actions were announced to the world in a circular dated 4 December 1802. The opening of the first Supreme Council 33 was preceded by considerable "Scottish" activity.

Etienne Morin (1693?-1771) received authority in 1761 from Paris or Bor- deaux to promote Masonry throughout the world. This included propagat- ing a rite of twenty-five degrees, sometimes known as the Rite of Perfection. Morin moved to San Domingo and soon appointed six Inspectors General.16 The most successful of these was Henry Andrew Francken (d. 1795), from whom fifty-two Inspectors descended, though he only appointed six himself After Morin's arrival in America, bodies of his rite were soon established:

1764-Loge de Parfaits de Ecosse, New Orleans, Louisiana;

1767-The Ineffable Lodge of Perfection, Albany, New York;

1781-Lodge of Perfection, Philadelphia5 Pennsylvania;

1783-Lodge of Perfection, Charleston, South Carolina;

1788-Grand Council, Princes of Jerusalem, Charleston, South Carolina

1791-King Solomon's Lodge of Perfection, Martha's Vinyard, Massa- chusetts;

1792-Lodge of Perfection, Baltimore, Maryland;

1797-Sublime Grand Council, Princes of the Royal Secret, Charleston, South Carolina;

1797-La Triple Union, Chapter of Rose Croix, New York.17

The degrees of this rite were propagated with little organization by Inspectors, often for the fees they could negotiate. The Supreme Council's motto, Ordo ab Chao, is indeed appropriate for the situation. Webb's Monitor had monitorial instructions for the ineffable degrees, which served to make American Masons aware there was more than the York Rite. Thus when the Mother Supreme Council formed itself in 1801, it did not operate in a vacuum.

In August 1806 Antoine Bideaud,a member of the Supreme Council of the "French West India Islands," visited new York City and found an opportunity to make a little extra money. He conferred the Scottish Rite degrees on four Masons for $46 each and then created a "Sublime Grand Consistory, 300,310, and 32'." Bideaud's authority was for the islands only and certainly did not extend into New York, which was under the jurisdiction of the Charleston Supreme Council.18

In New York City in October 1807, Joseph Cernean (d. 1827?), a jeweler from Cuba, constituted a "Sovereign Grand Consistory of Sublime Princes of the Royal Secret." Cerneau was a "Deputy Grand Inspector, for the Northern part of the Island of Cuba" under Morin's rite. His patent limited him to confer the 4th through 24th on Lodge officers, and the 25th once a year. Early records are sufficiently vague that it cannot be determined if the original members of Cerneau's Consistory thought they had the 25th or the 32th. With even less authority than Bideaud, Cerneau launched his foray into high degree Masonry in New York.19

The Bideaud organization was "healed" by Emmanuel de Ia Motta Grand Treasurer of the Mother Supreme Council on 24 December 1813. This group assumed control of what is today known as the Northern Masonic Jurisdiction. The Cerneau Consistory ignored de Ia Motta's actions, but decided they had to expand their degrees to thirty-three to "keep up with the competition." They eventually claimed jurisdiction over the "United States, Their Territories, and Dependencies." Thus in 1830 there were three competing Supreme Councils in the United States. All three became dormant during the anti-Masonic period.

Side Degrees

The last category of pre-1830 degrees is side degrees," conferred under irregular circumstances with little formal authority. They sometimes were communicated by itinerant lecturers, sometimes by Masons who possessed the degree, sometimes for a fee, sometimes for free. Some of these degrees could have coalesced into a rite if anti-Masonry hadn't crushed them. There is scant information on them, sometimes little more than a title mentioned in passing. A search of all American Lodge minutes before 1830 might yield a few more names, but probably no more rituals.

Some of our information comes from two exposes from the anti-Masonic pe- rio d, David Barnard's 1829 Light on Masonry and Avery AIlyn's 1831 A Ritual of Freemasonry. Both authors seemed to been originally motivated in "saving" the American public by exposing the "evils" of Freemasonry. However, general interest in Masonry was spurred on by the public conferral of the degrees by anti-Masonic troupes. This interest, in turn increased demand for expose's, especially those complete with passwords and grips. Bernard obliged this demand by adding the secret work from Delaunaye's Thuileur, without regard for whether it matched the American degrees he described.20 It is often difficult to know if the degrees described were widely worked, if at all. Of these many degrees) only the Heroines of Jericho seems to be an American original. It survived and is worked today by Prince Hall Masons.

Another source of pre-183O side degrees is a series of newspaper articles, "Recollections of a Masonic Veteran," by Robert Benjamin Folger (18031892). Published in 1873-74, these articles describe his fifty years in Masonry with a few comments about side degrees. Finally, there is tantalizing evidence that Zorobabel Lodge No.498 in New York City worked the Rectified Scottish Rite and may have conferred the fourth degree, Scottish Master.21

Pre-1830 American Masonic Side Degrees

Knight of the Christian Mark Bernard, Allyn

Knight of the Holy Sepulcher Bernard, Allyn

Holy and Thrice Illustrious order of the Cross Bernard, Allyn

Knight of the Three Kings Allyn

Knight of Constantinople Allyn,Folger

Secret Monitor Allyn, Folger

Ark and Dove (RAMs only) Allyn

Mediterranean Pass Folger

Knight of the Round Table (fun degree) Folger

Aaron's Band (similar to High Priesthood)Folger

Master Mason's Daughter (for women) Folger

True Kindred (for women) Folger

Heroine of jericho (RAMs, wives and widows) Allyn

1830: The End of the First Era of American Masonry

As early as March 1826 a New York Mason named William Morgan began plans to publish the "secrets of Freemasonry." This created quite a stir in his small town of Batavia, New York. Neither Morgan, nor his potential readers, nor the local Lodge seemed aware that ritual expose's had been available in the United States since at least 1730 when Benjamin Franklin republished The Mystery of Freemasonry. Masons tried to purchase the manuscript from Morgan's publisher, David Miller, a former Entered Apprentice Mason. When this failed, Miller's printing company was set on fire twice, presumably by Masons, but others claim it was a publicity stunt by Miller.

Morgan, a ne'er-do-well in frequent debt, was jailed in Canandaigua, New York, for a debt of $2.00 assigned to Nicholas G. Chesbro, Master of the Lodge at Canandaigua. On the next day, 12 September 1826, Chesbro appeared at the jail with several other Masons and discharged his claim against Morgan. They escorted Morgan outside and into a waiting carriage. Before entering the carriage, Morgan was heard crying during a scuffle, "Help! Murder!" He was driven north to Niagara County and held in the old Powder Magazine at Ft. Niagra until 19 September. Morgan was never seen thereafter. 22

Morgan's abduction, disappearance, and presumed murder set off a social and political crisis in the United States. Many came to believe that Freemasonry was a secretive power behind the government, thwarting the will of the people and murdering those who dared cross it. Religious leaders denounced the fraternity as anti-Christian. Soon the fear of Masonry manifested itself in the creation of the first major "third part" in American politics: the AntiMasonic Party. The party attracted reformers, abolitionists, and idealists, but its primary purpose was the destruction of Freemasonry and other "secret societies." From about 1826 to 1840 the anti-Masonic movement swept across the country, destructive in some places, barely noticed in others. In 1826 New York had 480 Lodges and by 1835 it only 75 remained. The Grand Lodge of Vermont dwindled to the point that only the Grand Master, the Grand Secretary, and the Grand Treasurer attended Grand Lodge, and the Supreme Councils of the Scottish Rite were dormant. The northeastern states, where the Craft was most prosperous, endured the worst destruction, but few parts of the country was spared. By the time the Anti-Masonic Party collapsed as a political force in 1840, Freemasonry began to reemerge, but as a more conservative and religiously oriented organization.

References

Allyn, Avery. A Ritual of Freemasonry'. Boston: John Marsh and Co., 1831.

Baynard, Samuel H., Jr. History of the Supreme Counci4 33,. 2 vols. Boston: Supreme Council, 33', N.MJ., 1938.

Bernard, David. Light on Masonry. Utica, N.Y.: William Williams, 1829.

Bullock, Steven C. Revolutionary' Brotherhood Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.

Coil, Henry W. et al. Coil's Masonic Encyclopedia New York: Macoy Ma- sonic Publishing and Supply Co., Inc., 1961.

Crockett, David. First American Born. Bowie, Md.: Heritage Books, Inc., 1992.

Folger, Robert Benjamin, S. Brent Morris, ed. Recollections of a Masonic Veteran. Bloomington, Ill.: Masonic Book Club, 1995.

Johnson, Melvin M. The Beginnings of Freemasonry in America. Kingsport, Tenn.: Southern Publishers, Inc., 1924.

Morgan, William. Illustrations of Masonry. Batavia, N.Y.: David Miller, 1826.

Morris, S. Brent. Cornerstones of Freedom. Washington: Supreme Coun- cil, 33, SJ, 1993.

The Folger Manuscript. Bloomington, III.: Masonic Book Club, 1993

Voorhis, Harold van Buren. The Story of the Scottish Rite of Freemasonry. New York: Press of Henry Emerson, 1965.

Walgren, Kent. "An Historical Sketch of Pre-1851 Louisiana Scottish Rite Masonry," Heredom, vol. 4, 1995, pp.189-206.

Walkes, Joseph A. Black Square and Compass. 3rd printing. Ft. Leaven- worth, Kans.: Walkes Book Co., 1980.

'Webb, Thomas Smith. The Freemason '; Monitor or Illustrations of Masonry. New and improved ed. Salem, Mass.: John D. Cushing, 1821.

Wesley, Charles H. Prince Hall: Life and Legacy, 2nd ed. Washington: United Supreme Council, 33, SJ,, P.H.A., 1983.

Footnotes

I. Steven C. Bullock, Revolutionary Brotherhood, (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), p. 275.

2. William Morgan, illustrations of Masonry, (Batavia, N.Y.:David Miller, 1826).

3. David Crockett, First American Born (Bowie, Md.: Heritage Books, Inc., 1992).

4. Henry W. Coil et al., Coils' Masonic Encyclopedia (New York: Macoy Masonic Publishing and Supply Co., Inc., 1961), s.v. "Coxe, Daniel."

5. Coil, s.v. "America, Introduction of Freemasonry into."

6. Melvin M. Johnson, The Beginnings of Freemasonry in America (Kingsport, Tenn.: Southern Publishers, Inc., 1924).

7. It is worth noting that Massachusetts, Virginia, and some other states have traditions of Masonic meetings earlier than Pennsylvania. To declare dogmatically that Pennsylvania is the source and origin of American Freemasonry is to run the risk of friendly but intense disagreement from other Grand Lodges.

8. Charles H. Wesley, Prince Hall Life and Legacy, 2nd ed. (Washington: United Supreme Council, 330, P.H.A., 1983), pp. 34-35; Joseph A. Walkes, Black Square and Compass. 3rd printing (Ft. Leavenworth, Kans.: Walkes Book Co., 1980), pp.21

9. Charles H. Wesley, pp.99-100.

10. Charles H. Wesley, p.91.

11. Thomas Smith Webb, The Freemasons' Monitor of illustrations of Masonry, new and improved ed. (Salem, Mass.: John D. Cushing, 1821),p. 1.

12. S. Brent Morris, Cornerstones of Freedom (Washington: Supreme Council, 33', S.J., 1993), p.140.

13. Coil, s.v. "Royal Arch Masonry."

14. Coil, s.v. "Rites, Masonic, II, Cryptic Rite.,'

15. Coil, s.v. "Knights Templar (Masonic)."

16. Harold van Buren Voorhis, The Story of the Scottish Rite of Freemasonry (New York: Press of Henry Emerson, 1965), p.15.

17. Kent Walgreen, "An Historical Sketch of Pre-1851 Louisiana Scottish Rite Masonry," Heredom, vol.4, 1995, pp.190; Samuel H. Baynard, Jr, History of the Supreme Counci4 330, 2 vols (Boston: Supreme Council, 33 N.M.J., 1938), pp.97-100.

18 Baynard, p.152.

19. Baynard, pp. l55~l56; Joseph Ceineau, Patent of Authority, 15 July 1806, Baracoa, Cuba, Manuscript in the hand of Mathieu Dupotet(?), Archives, Supreme Council, 330, S.J., Washington, D.C.

20. Walgren, p.98.

21. S. Brent Morris, The Folger Manuscript (Bloomington Ill.: Masonic Book Club, 1993), pp.4,26,27,31.

22. Coil, s.v. "Morgan Affair."

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P42

Houdini---Master of Illusion Part II

by William E. Parker, MPS

His generosity, while often kept largely in the shadows, was legion. Perhaps, due to the insecurity felt by many performers, he felt that he, too, might one day be in need as show business can be a fickle entity in the public eye one minute and forgotten soon after. It may be, too he was simply implementing the Masonic tenets of Brotherly Love, Relief and Charity. Perhaps, it was simply a combination of both. The Houdinis never had a home life or settled down in the conventional sense of the word, spending much of their whole career "on the road" performing at one venue or another, their residence a series of rooming houses and hotels. Their life was the theater, the circus, or wherever they happened to be performing. While Houdini bought a 26room New York townhouse and moved his Mother there, it would prove little more than a storehouse of magic and a place he occasionally visited.

He had a fascination for visiting cemeteries, to both see the graves Sf older performers, ensure they were well kept and it has been speculated he had other deeper psychological reasons. Ever alert to Houdini publicity, however, either Bess or a photographer was usually on hand to snap an appropriate photo. If Bess said cemeteries were serene and peaceful, for Houdini they represented something more. In the words of one of his biographers: "The clue is in his life: that paradoxical con- junction of compulsive vitality and an obsession with death."

He apparently feared death but faced such fears by constantly devising newer and more dangerous methods of ostensibly cheating the 'grim reaper'. of proving his superiority over death time and time again. In truth, his "death defying" stunts, such as the famous milk can and torture cell escapes, were safely routined and prepared in advance to ensure success. Unquestionably, there were strong elements of danger in his performances, with the real possibility of an unforeseen or serious incident, as happened as least twice, but every precaution was taken to minimize such dangers. He was a showman above all and the slightest threat of failure was anathema to his nature, a possibility his obsessive personality did not want to consider. One of the most enduring Houdini legends began on Nov. 27, 1906, when while heavily chained, he jumped from the Belle Isle Bridge into the cold waters of the Detroit Riven As the story now goes, he allegedly jumped through a hole cut in the ice of the frozen river, following which he narrowly missed death, being temporarily trapped under the ice, then after shedding his shackles, he miraculously found the exit hole and emerged from the River none the worse for the experience. While . he did indeed make the jump, there is a good bit of legend merged with the truth. Television and instant nationwide media coverage not then being existent, it seems a frozen river and under ice death escape were later added to details of the rather routine and mundane jump, it became a publicist's dream, and Houdini's two-week stint at the Temple Theater was a resounding success. What matter if an overactive public relations somewhat embellished the facts! The public can be a fickle entity, though, and to stay "on top", Houdini was constantly seeking newer and more difficult routines to capture his audiences. Rarely sleeping more than 5/6 hours a night, he spent much time in the quest. The Milk Can, Chinese Water Torture Cell, Bridge Jumps, Walking Through A Wall and other presentations all attest to the success of that quest and his marvelous flair for showmanship.

By 1912, he was playing eight weeks in Hammerstein's N.Y. Roof Garden at $1,000 a week, a princely sum in that era. If in fairy tales a legendary pot of gold is often found, Houdini's reaction to the Roof Garden engagement comes close by demanding his first week's salary in $20 gold coins which he then poured into his Mother's apron. Even this sum pales by comparison, however, with the larger sums later received not to mention his demand for 5001o of the profits in some instances which raised his salary to enormous heights becoming the highest paid entertainer in vaudeville.

The years were rolling by and Houdini realized he could not always dangle upside down high above the ground freeing himself from a strait jacket. He needed new worlds to conquer and so in 1919 he moved into movies, first in a "cliff hanger" serial and then "cliff hanger" feature films. His screen appearances featured fast action, fantastic escapes and spectacular stunts such as a breath-taking Niagara Falls sequence in "The Man From Beyond." He would invariably be chained, roped, or otherwise immobilized by villains in sequences which required his imminent release to escape death and then rescue the heroine from an equally perilous situation. Needless to say, he always prevailed. After making a serial and two films, he formed his own company and wrote, edited, directed and starred in two more feature films. Motion pictures are not vaudeville, though, and his efforts lacked the element of imminent suspense. After all, it was only a movie with possible trick photography, not a live act where an audience could be captivated by every agonizing moment of his escape attempt.

The films might have been a success at the hands of a Douglas Fairbanks whose on-screen charisma could carry the day, but Houdini had neither the writing nor acting skills required and the films inevitably suffered. They were not a total disaster, however, for the screen medium brought him more fame, enhanced his vaudeville career and carried him to the London Palladium at $3,750 a week, the largest sum ever offered to a single entertainer there to that point. On June 28, 1914, Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire throne, was assassinated at Sarajevo and Europe rolled into W.W.I. Then, on May 7th, 1915, the liner Lusitania was torpedoed with the loss of some 1,100 lives, over 100 of them American. Other events followed, the situation grew increasingly tense and on April 6th, 1917, the U.S. entered the War.

The War naturally put a stop to his European appearances. Fiercely patriotic, in 1917 he tried to enlist but at age 43 was rejected as being too old. Not to be derailed, however, for the next two years he performed at military benefits, canteens, and training camps, usually at his own expense, often working with stars such as Will Rogers, Sophie Tucker, Jim Corbett and Tom Mix. He was also active in selling "Liberty Bonds", chalking up sales of $1,000,000 virtually single handedly.

His wife and her family having beliefs in ghosts, witches and other forms of superstition, early in their marriage Houdini had attempted to dispel such concerns. If he eventually succeeded, initially it was a trying experience for Bess who thought she had married a"devil sorcerer." It may be that which first prompted his interest in spiritualism and then concern over fraudulent practices therein. Or, it may have been his attendance at a spiritual seance in his youth where he immediately grasped the immense financial possibilities. Those events, coupled with an 1891 expose book detailing escapes and spiritualistic methods, all undoubtedly influenced the young man. Interestingly, while he later began to expose spiritual charlatans, he had himself followed the s~me path and had given psychic presentations early in his career as a means of adding to his income, spiritualism then in vogue. Giving his initial psychic performance in January, 1898, in a Kansas engagement, his presentations were hugely successful if not personally satisfying. In time, he became embarrassed at the gullibility of his audiences and revised the act to emphasize magic and escapes rather than spiritualism, indicating that any psychic effects were simply the product of natural means.

Could mediums communicate with the Netherworld? While keeping an open mind should a truly honest spiritual manifestation ever present itself, he developed a total aversion to psychic fraud and its perpetrators spending years both studying and lecturing on the issue. While spiritualism as entertainment was permissible, he felt the art was used by charlatans to cheat unsuspecting victims. With an evangelistic zeal, he became a fervent crusader exposing fraudulent mediums, fortune tellers, palm readers and fakers one after another even attacking the evil influence of the Quija Board, carrying a highly successful stage presentation throughout the country.

It's also likely his motivation arose in part by an attempt to "reach" his Mother for whom he bad a deep emotional attachment, a relationship which often guided his actions. Her death, July 17th, 1913, while he was touring in Europe, proved a devastating experience. Returning immediately to New York, he was inconsolable for a~while spending much time at her grave site. In a touching moment, his Mother having asked him to bring back a pair of warm woolen house slippers, Houdini placed them with her as she was laid to rest. It was a measure of his inner strength that by September he was able to resume work, but he was nonetheless left with a lasting sense of loss from which he apparently never fully recovered.

The spiritual aspect gave rise to one of the most curious friendships of the era. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, creator of Sherlock Holmes and his coldly analytical mind, turned to spiritualism in his later years and became a firm "believer." (Philalethes Oct.1996) At one point, there appears to have been a somewhat controversial seance whereby, through Lady Doyle's intercession, Houdini's Mother apparently spoke to him although it appears the magician found several reasons to deny the validity of the seance.

Houdini, well versed in theatrical effects, used his knowledge to great advantage in stage presentations unmasking spiritual frauds and became the antithesis of Doyle insofar as spiritualism was concerned. With Doyle a sincere and firm "believer", never relinquishing his views, and Houdini equally determined to demystify the subject, it eventually became obvious a meeting of minds was impossible. While a warm relationship existed between the two for some time, the friendship eventually cooled due to opposite viewpoints and attitudes.

An avid collector not only of anything magical but also other items which caught his eye, he endlessly sought out old apparatus and books and other diverse miscellanea sending everything to his N. Y. home until the house resembled nothing less than a small and highly cluttered museum, with much of the collection still in boxes. His library collection of magic, witchcraft, and spiritualism was undoubtedly one of the world's largest, but other non-magical areas were also represented.

For example, there was a large Lincoln collection, countless paintings, some valuable and some not, two works by the 18th century London Freemason Hogarth, one of the great English painters and engravers, a portable writing desk alleged to have belonged to Edgar Allen Poe, original signatures of the Declaration of Independence signers, and numerous other works. With a pride of possession bordering on a neurosis, he was particularly fond of magic wands which had belonged to other well-known magicians and it has been speculated he felt their powers passed to him through possession of such wands.

Interestingly, his collection also included an Auburn Prison electric chair he had acquired at an auction for "sentimental reasons." An electric chair escape sequence had been featured in his first film appearance and he may have envisaged using it in an "escape" in his shows. In a continuing sequence of almost comedic movements, however, Houdini would place the chair in the main part of the house, Bess would then move it to the basement, and Harry would, in turn, move it back again.

A Member of the Craft, Houdini was not alone among Masonic magicians, a group which included such notables as Harry Keller, Howard Thurston, and Harry Blackstone. Initiated in St. Cecile Lodge, N. Y., July 17th, 1923, he was Passed and Raised July 31st and August 21st and in 1924 he entered the Consistory. Immensely proud of his Masonic affiliation, he gave a benefit performance for the Valley of New York, filling the 4,000 seat Scottish Rite Cathedral and raising thousands of dollars for needy Masons. In October 1926, just weeks prior to his untimely death, he became a Shriner in N.Y.'s Mecca Temple.

Show business can be a demanding and often lonely profession, particularly so in Houdini's era where performers spent long hours traveling by trains with theaters and rooming houses their eventual destination. Many performers have been Masons both because of the Masonic ideals exemplifie4 by the Craft, as well as the Craft being a solace in their continuing travels with Masons and Lodges to be found virtually everywhere. There have been a number of Lodges composed essentially of those in the entertainment world, primarily in New York and Hollywood.

On October 22nd, 1926, during an engagement at the Princess Theater in Montreal, Canada, Houdini was talking to McGill University students in his dressing room. Lying on a couch resting, a first-year student asked permission to test the entertainer's abdominal muscle control and strike the magician. Houdini, accepting the challenge, mumbled his assent whereupon the student struck before the necessary muscles could be tensed, obviously a critical requirement. Later, although there were nagging signs of stomach pains, Houdini ignored them in the tradition of "the show must go on." That evening, he suffered more pains but nonetheless continued his schedule through October 23rd

Arriving in Detroit the next day, he was diagnosed with acute appendicitis but insisted on performing. Finally, with a temperature of 104, he was taken to Grace Hospital where a ruptured. gangrenous appendix was removed but peritonitis had unfortunately set in. Despite medical predictions of imminent 4eath, his strong will to live was such he held on almost a week, finally succumbing at 1:26 P. M., October 31st, 1926,. at the age of 52, Halloween Day, perhaps a symbolically magical date for his final curtain.

His body was taken to New York, ironically in an expensive bronze casket he had ordered for use as publicity stunt, with the funeral services held at the W.43 St. Elks Lodge Ballroom with some 2,000 in attendance. In the impressive two hour service, two Rabbis eulogized Houdini, the Society of American Magicians performed a "Broken Wand" ceremony written especially for the occasion, there were tributes from the National Vaudeville Artists and Jewish Theatrical Guild, rites by the Mt. Zion Congregation, the Elks, and Masonic Rites by the St. Cecile Lodge.

Following the services, thousands lined the sidewalks to pay tribute to Houdini as the funeral procession wound its way to Machpelah Cemetery, Brooklyn, N.Y., a site Houdini had selected after a long search, where he was buried in the family plot. The family exception was Bess who would be buried in a Catholic cemetery elsewhere. Letters from his Mother were placed in a black bag and used as the coffin's pillow for Houdini's head.

Always looking for areas to both occupy his time and enhance his reputation, Houdini was particularly active in rejuvenating the Society of American Magicians which, while organized in 1902, had remained something of a relatively modest New York City group. Through intense campaigning, he was able to expand the group into a bona-fide national (now International) organization and was elected its President in 1917, although his relationship with the Society would blow hot and cold through the years. As mysterious in death as in life, there seems to be some confusion concerning the specifics of his death. It has been determined that he died from peritonitis resulting from a ruptured appendix, but circumstances then become cloudy. If Detroit has been well established as the locale, some reports indicate he was already suffering from appendicitis and the student's blows did not cause but merely aggravated an existing but perhaps undiagnosed condition.

Houdini was also recovering from a fractured ankle apparently had some form of internal injury suffered during a strait jacket rehearsal during the summer and had recurring kidney damage resulting from years of strenuous over exertion performing escapes. In brief, although his physical condition did not match the peak of his earlier years, this in no way diminished his obsessive need to perform. Seemingly indifferent to aches and pains throughout his career, his "superhuman" image of himself constantly drove him on whatever the cost the cost eventually being his life. Houdini spent almost as fast as he earned with only a modest portion remaining of his lifetime earnings. Fortunately, in addition to proceeds from estate sales, Bess also received substantial life insurance benefits thus assuring a comfortable lifetime income. She sold the W. 113th St. home and moved to another area of the city, Houdini's vast collection of magical and other miscellanea being dispersed to the Library of Congress and among friends and collectors. If the dispersal was a tragedy, his collection undoubtedly being one of the world's finest, fortunately much still remains available in various public and private collections. His brother, Theo, acquired much of his active performing apparatus continuing his own career until 1945, passing away in June of that year.

The Literary Digest called Houdini "the greatest necromancer of the age perhaps of all time." Be that as it may, before Houdini died he said he would send a message to his wife from beyond the grave if it were possible. Many seance attempts have been made to bring Houdini's spirit back but none have succeeded. Bess offered $10,000 to anyone who could produce spiritually the secret message she and Harry had prepared, but when no one could after a period of 10 years she withdrew the offer.

Through the ages, the art of conjuring has seen many transformations from an art to be feared to a position of honor. The ancient Greeks both worshiped and feared their Gods whom they credited with supernatural powers, the Priests of ancient Egypt and their secrets occupied a preeminent place in that society while the Roman emperors were, in general, opposed to sorcery and took measures against it. In the legends attributed to the Artliurian era, while the wizard Merlin occupied a respected, if nonetheless feared, position, the significance is not in whatever truth lies in the legends but rather the status accorded Merlin.

The lot of the magician, or sorcerer, has not always been an easy one. In the words of the German Freemason Goethe: ("Wir sind gewohnt, dass die Menschen verkahnen, Was sie nicht verstehen.") We are accustomed to seeing man despise what he does not understand. This truism has been expressed in many languages, but the fundamental truth remains constant. As the Christian Religion grew, centuries of superstition grew with it.

Using whatever pretext was politically expedient when faced with events it could neither understand nor accept, the Roman Church in its ignorance and intolerance decreed that sorcerers must be destroyed and tens of thousands of alleged witches and others were burned at the stake, often innocent but simply victims of groundless or malicious accusations. What matter if many also perished simply because of disagreement with Church doctrine. Since the first Papal Bull condemning the Craft in 1738, Freemasonry and Freemasons have come under similar persecutions by the Church, charges of magical practices often a convenient excuse to be added to those of heresy. (Philanthropies 1994).

Even Jacques DeMolay, Grand Master of the Templars and a long-standing servant of the Church, suffered a tragic fate in 1314 falsely accused not only of heresy but also of diabolical and Satanic practices. It has nonetheless been documented the charges were politically motivated when the Templars' services were no longer required, the Order simply a victim of its own success. (Philalethes Dec.1994) By the medieval period, if sleight-of-hand artists and traveling "mountebanks" performed for Kings, Princes, and at 'Faires", they had nonetheless learned it was both unwise and unhealthy to claim supernatural powers, entertainment only being their stated purpose. Instances of sorcery persecution would continue through the centuries, however, as witness Joan of Arc's trial and burning in 1431 and the infamous Salem (Mass.) Witch Hunts of 1692 where almost 20 persons, mostly women, were executed amid allegations of practicing the occult arts.

In the modern era, while some early magicians often made social gains, they were nonetheless usually seen essentially within the context of "show business" rather than "good